CHAPTER-II
GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNER
INTRODUCTION
Human beings keep
changing. During their lives, they change in size, appearance and psychological
composition. The way they change differs from individual to individual.
However, the essential core patterns of growth and development remain more or
less the same and take place in an orderly way. Each individual, with his
unique heredity and the way he is nurtured, determines the way he traverses the
broad highway of his life at his rate of progress. He will attain the size,
shape, capacities and developmental status in a way, which is peculiar to him
at each stages of life.
In this chapter, we
shall discuss the concept, principles and various stages of growth and
development. Children differ in physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
growth patterns. They also differ in the ways they interact with and respond to
their environment as well as play, affection. Having an understanding of the
sequence of growth and development prepares teachers to help and give attention
to all the children.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Can you recall events
from your early childhood say the second or third year? You might have a few
vague and blurred memories about your childhood. The experiences of that period
form the basis of the type of person you are today. How human beings grow,
change and adjust themselves to their environment is the focus of development
and behavior as also the concepts, principles and theories of growth of development.
The human being is never static. From conception to death, he undergoes
changes. There are progressive changes in response to environmental conditions.
His body organs and psychological functions show the curves of capacity and
achievement as well as slow erosion and decay. Cognitive abilities develop and
then degenerate; basic metabolism reaches a peak, then declines, the endocrine
function flourishes, and then fades. There is a rise and fall of physical
energy in terms of both the force and speed of action with age. In fact, no
organ or function of human beings has yet been found which is independent of
age determinants. At the time of conception, a child has genetic potentialities
that are partly predictable and partly unpredictable. These genetic potentialities
are determined by the nature of his biological inheritance. Still there is room
for a tremendous range in the ways he uses the genetic potentialities,
depending upon the environment that may help or hinder the development of those
potentialities.
THE CONCEPT OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The terms growth and
development are often used interchangeably. Actually, they are conceptually
different. Neither growth nor development takes place all by itself.
Growth refers to quantitative changes in size, which
include physical changes in height, weight, size, internal organs, etc. As an
individual develops, old features like baby fat, hair and teeth, etc.,
disappear and new features like facial hair are acquired. When maturity comes,
the second set of teeth, primary and secondary sex characteristics, etc.,
appear. Similar changes occur in all aspects of the personality. During infancy
and childhood, the body steadily becomes larger, taller and heavier. To
designate this change the term growth is used. Growth involves changes in body
proportions as well as in overall stature and weight. The term growth thus
indicates an increase in bodily dimensions. However, the rate of growth differs
from one part of the body to the other.
Development, by contrast, refers to qualitative changes taking
place simultaneously with quantitative changes of growth. It may be defined as
a progressive series of orderly, coherent changes. The term progressive
signifies that changes are directional, that they lead forward rather than backward.
Orderly and coherent suggest that a definite relationship between the changes
taking place and those that precede or will follow them. Development represents
changes in an organism from its origin to its death, but more particularly the
progressive changes that take place from origin to maturity. Thus, development
may be explained as the series of overall changes in an individual due to the
emergence of modified structures and functions that are the outcome of the
interactions and exchanges between the organism and its environment.
THE PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Following are the
fundamental principles of growth and development.
(i) Development follows
a pattern or a sequence:
Development tends to
proceed from the head to downward. This is called the cephalocaudal
principle. According to this principle, the child first gains control of
the head, then the arms, then the legs. Infants gain control of head and face
movements within the first two months after birth. In the next few months, they
are able to lift themselves up using their arms. By 6 to 12 months of age,
infants start to gain leg control and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk.
Development also proceeds from the center of the body to outward according to
the proximodistal principle. Accordingly, the spinal cord develops
before other parts of the body. The child’s arms develop before the hands, and
the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes. Fingers and toes are
the last to develop.
(ii) Development
proceeds from general to specific responses:
It moves from a
generalized to localized behavior. The newborn infant moves its whole body at
one time instead of moving only one part of it. It makes random kicking with
its legs before it can coordinate the leg muscles well enough to crawl or to
walk.
(iii) Development is a
continuous process:
Development does not
occur in spurts. Growth continues from the moments of conception until the
individual reaches maturity. It takes place at slow regular pace rather than by
‘leaps and bounds’. Although development is a continuous process, yet the tempo
of growth is not even, during infancy and early years growth moves swiftly and
later it slacken.
(iv) Different aspects
of growth develop at different rates
Neither all parts of
the body grow at the same rate nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed
equally. They reach maturity at different times. Development also depends on
maturation. Maturation refers to the sequence of biological changes in
children. These orderly changes give children new abilities. Much of the
maturation depends on changes in the brain and the nervous system. These
changes assist children to improve their thinking abilities and motor skills. A
rich learning environment helps children develop to their potential. Children
must mature to a certain point before they can gain some skills. For instance,
the brain of a four-month-old has not matured enough to allow the child to use
words. A four-month-old will babble and coo. However, by two years of age, with
the help of others, the child will be able to say and understand many words.
This is an example of how cognitive development occurs from simple tasks to
more tasks that are complex. Likewise, physical skills develop from general to
specific movements. For example, think about the way an infant waves its arms
and legs. In a young infant, these movements are random. In several months, the
infant will likely be able to grab a block with his or her whole hand. In a
little more time, the same infant will grasp a block with the thumb and
forefinger.
(v) Most traits are
correlated in development:
Generally, it is seen
that the child whose intellectual development is above average is so in health
size, sociability and special aptitudes.
(vi) Growth is complex:
All of its aspects are
closely interrelated. The child’s mental development is intimately related to
his physical growth and its needs.
(vii) Growth is a
product of the interaction of the organism and environment:
Among the environmental
factors one can mention nutrition, climate the conditions in the home, the type
of social organization in which individual moves and lives.
(viii) There are wide
individual differences in growth:
Individual differences
in growth are caused by differences in heredity and environment.
(ix) Growth is both
quantitative and qualitative:
These two aspects are
inseparable. The child not only grows in ‘size’; he grows up or matures in
structure and function too.
(x) Development is
predictable:
It is possible for us
to predict at an early age the range within which the mature development of the
child is likely to fall. However, mental development cannot be predicted with
the same degree of accuracy.
PRINCIPLES OF
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
There
is a set of principles that characterizes the pattern and process of growth and
development. These principles or characteristics describe typical development
as a predictable and orderly process; that is, we can predict how most children
will develop and that they will develop at the same rate and at about the same
time as other children. Although there are individual differences in children’s
personalities, activity levels, and timing of developmental milestones, such as
ages and stages, the principles and characteristics of development are
universal patterns. Principles of Development are follows;
1.
Development
proceeds from the head downward:
This
is called the cephalocaudal principle. This principle describes the direction
of growth and development. According to this principle, the child gains control
of the head first, then the arms, and then the legs. Infants develop control of
the head and face movements within the first two months after birth. In the
next few months, they are able to lift themselves up by using their arms. By 6
to 12 months of age, infants start to gain leg control and may be able to
crawl, stand, or walk. Coordination of arms always precedes coordination of
legs.
2.
Development
proceeds from the center of the body outward:
This
is the principle of proximodistal development that also describes the direction
of development. This means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of
the body. The child’s arms develop before the hands and the hands and feet
develop before the fingers and toes. Finger and toe muscles (used in fine motor
dexterity) are the last to develop in physical development.
3.
Development
depends on maturation and learning:
Maturation
refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development.
The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new
abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for
maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system help children to
improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills. Also, children
must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills
(Readiness).
For
example, a four-month-old cannot use language because the infant’s brain has
not matured enough to allow the child to talk. By two years old, the brain has
developed further and with help from others, the child will have the capacity
to say and understand words. Also, a child can’t write or draw until he has
developed the motor control to hold a pencil or crayon. Maturational patterns
are innate, that is, genetically programmed. The child’s environment and the
learning that occurs as a result of the child’s experiences largely determine
whether the child will reach optimal development. A stimulating environment and
varied experiences allow a child to develop to his or her potential.
4.
Development
proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex:
Children
use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For
example, learning relationships between things (how things are similar), or
classification, is an important ability in cognitive development. The cognitive
process of learning how an apple and orange are alike begins with the most
simplistic or concrete thought of describing the two.
Seeing
no relationship, a preschool child will describe the objects according to some
property of the object, such as color. Such a response would be, “An apple is
red (or green) and an orange is orange.” The first level of thinking about how
objects are alike is to give a description or functional relationship (both
concrete thoughts) between the two objects. “An apple and orange are round” and
“An apple and orange are alike because you eat them” are typical responses of
three, four and five year olds.
As
children develop further in cognitive skills, they are able to understand a
higher and more complex relationship between objects and things; that is, that
an apple and orange exist in a class called fruit. The child cognitively is
then capable of classification.
5.
Growth
and development is a continuous process:
As
a child develops, he or she adds to the skills already acquired and the new
skills become the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills. Most
children follow a similar pattern. Also, one stage of development lays the
foundation for the next stage of development.
For
example, in motor development, there is a predictable sequence of developments
that occur before walking. The infant lifts and turns the head before he or she
can turn over. Infants can move their limbs (arms and legs) before grasping an
object. Mastery of climbing stairs involves increasing skills from holding on to
walking alone. By the age of four, most children can walk up and down stairs
with alternating feet. As in maturation, in order for children to write or
draw, they must have developed the manual (hand) control to hold a pencil and
crayon.
6.
Growth
and development proceed from the general to specific:
In
motor development, the infant will be able to grasp an object with the whole
hand before using only the thumb and forefinger. The infant’s first motor
movements are very generalized, undirected, and reflexive, waving arms or
kicking before being able to reach or creep toward an object. Growth occurs
from large muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements.
7. There are
individual rates of growth and development:
Each
child is different and the rates at which individual children grow is
different. Although the patterns and sequences for growth and development are
usually the same for all children, the rates at which individual children reach
developmental stages will be different. Understanding this fact of individual
differences in rates of development should cause us to be careful about using
and relying on age and stage characteristics to describe or label children.
There
is a range of ages for any developmental task to take place. This dismisses the
notion of the “average child”. Some children will walk at ten months while
others walk a few months older at eighteen months of age. Some children are
more active while others are more passive. This does not mean that the passive
child will be less intelligent as an adult. There is no validity to comparing
one child’s progress with or against another child.
Rates
of development also are not uniform within an individual child. For example, a
child’s intellectual development may progress faster than his emotional or
social development. An understanding of the principles of development helps us
to plan appropriate activities and stimulating and enriching experiences for
children, and provides a basis for understanding how to encourage and support young
children’s learning.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Any development process
proceeds through some stages and each development stage differs from the other.
Each stage of development has its characteristic. Psychologists have separated
human life span into stages or periods and identified specific changes that may
be expected during each stage. The transition from one stage to the next is
gradual rather than sudden. The age groups assigned to each stage of the
development are general as shown in below;
Stages of Development
|
S.N.
|
Age Groups(Years)
|
Stage of Development
|
Description of Each Stages
|
|
1.
|
Birth to 2 Infancy
|
Neonate
|
This stage is a period from birth to
two weeks.
|
|
Babyhood
|
This stage is of rapid growth and
development. There are changes in body proportions as well as intellectual
growth.
|
||
|
2.
|
2 to 6
|
Early
childhood
|
This is the preschool period. It is
also called the pre-gang age. In this stage, the child seeks gain control
over his environment. He also starts to learn to make social adjustment.
|
|
3.
|
6 to 12
|
Late childhood
|
This is the primary school age. Here
child is expected to acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are considered
essential for successful adjustment to adult life. She/he is also expected to
learn certain essential skills.
|
|
4.
|
12 to 18
|
Adolescence
|
This is the period of physiological
change. It is the period when children become sexually mature. It’s also the
period of intensified personal interaction with peers of the same and
opposite sex.
|
|
5.
|
18 to 40
|
Young
adulthood
|
The responsibilities of adulthood
include important decisions like choosing a career, a life partner, etc.
Young adulthood begins with setting goals and aspirations.
|
|
6.
|
40 to 60
|
Middle
adulthood
|
After settling down in thirties and
having lived through with rooting phase, the individual starts feeling sense
of uprooting and dissatisfaction during the forties. A physical decline in
the form of wrinkles, thickening waistlines, graying and thinning hair start
appearing. The changes are often termed middle life transition, middle-age
revolt, mid-career crisis or middle-age slump. These terms point U, the
loss of youth and the coming of old age. In women, hormonal changes of
menopause (ending of menstruation) generate anxiety and depression.
|
|
7.
|
Over 60
|
Late adulthood
|
Aging is a process, which causes loss
of vitality. Aged adults are more concerned about their health and death.
Their visit to doctors is more frequent. Retirement has the worst impact on
aged adults. They gradually lose their sense of meaningfulness in life. Some
develop interests in social service and spend their time in financial
planning, reading, travelling, visiting religious places and enjoying nature.
|
PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENCE AND REMEDIES
Most problems of adolescence are due to failure in understanding the
anatomical, morphological and psychological changes expected during
adolescence. Psychologically, adolescence is such a vulnerable stage that boys
/ girls of this age are easily carried away by perceptions generated by
1.
Misleading and misguiding parents,
teachers, friends, brother/sisters.
2.
Ignorance of elders.
3.
Half - informed or ill - informed
friends, brothers, sisters.
4.
Wrongful messages depicted through TV
serials, advertisements, films
5.
Publications carrying partially or
fully false information.
Such perceptions can be anything in the range of studies, sex, society,
married life, career, religion, politics, or any relevant subject. Every
adolescent boy or girl is prone to such exposures - which ultimately are
retained as perceptions in their minds to form their behavioral patterns.
The problems of
adolescence are classified as
1.
Morphological / developmental
2.
Psychological
3.
Social
4.
Educational.
Some problems
are absolutely unimportant and trivial. They could be easily ignored. But even
such problems cause great concern to adolescent people.
Morphological / Developmental Problems
1.
over growth of hair or undergrowth of
hair
2.
over weight and underweight
3.
skin color problems
4.
Facial deformities, pimples, etc.
5.
Limb deformities
6.
Abnormal growth of genitals and
breasts.
Psychological Problems
Ignorance about many basic facts leads to psychological problems like
1. Misconceptions about sexual feelings, sex related issues.
2.
Misconceptions about child birth,
reproduction.
3.
Misconceptions about coitus, menstrual cycles.
4.
Fear about sex and sexual issues.
5.
Guilt feeling about sex related issues.
6.
Inferiority / Superiority complex about
skin color, beauty, mental ability and IQ.
7.
Inexplicable perceptions about dress
and fashion codes.
8.
Wrong and unrealistic ideologies about
friendship and courtship.
9.
Perceptional or communicational or
preconceived complications about their teachers and parents.
10.
Attraction towards opposite sex.
11.
Unrealistic and illogical curiosity
about sex and sex related issues.
12.
Exceptional vulnerability to suicide
psychology.
Social
1.
Anticipated unemployment and insecurity
due to unemployment.
2.
Unwarranted and inexplicable
heartedness towards brother / sisters, friends.
3.
Intense closeness with brothers /
sisters, friends.
4.
Unpredictable and volatile relationships
with friends.
5.
Unrealistic social perceptions about
violence, love, sex as influenced by media.
6.
Unusually vulnerable and volatile
relations with relatives.
7. Fear / imagination about married life, life partners.
Educational
1.
Tensions of attending the classes,
examinations and tests.
2.
Low IQ feeling.
3.
Fear about failure in examination.
4.
Fear about low score.
5.
Fear and concern about a future career.
6.
Misconceptions about teachers.
Due to many problems faced during adolescence, the boys and girls of the age
between 8 -16 form a separate category by themselves. Their problems are
specific to themselves. Most of the problems faced by them are perceptional. By
timely and effective guidance - many of their problems could be solved. Some of
them may need medical / psychiatric attention. In India, the parents influence
their behaviour, thoughts and are in position to solve many problems - if they
have positive approach.
Despite all efforts being made by parents, teachers, large numbers of
adolescents face one or many problems. When the problem is aggravated, the
parents may take them to doctors. But most of them face minor problems -
modifying their behavioral patterns, personality as a whole. The implications
of problems in adolescence can be moral or social.
Social Implications
1.
Future citizen may have a high IQ due
to positive thinking and reorientation of their mental resources towards
positive personality development.
2.
A section of future population may turn
into disgruntled, impatient group of people due to grooming of misconceptions
about society, love, law, relations, etc.
3.
Due to wrong educational policies and
ever growing unemployment problems - a section of population may turn hostile
against the whole society, which breeds and deepens the antisocial activities
and perverted thinking.
4.
Many of the wrong perception about sex
related problems may lead them to unwanted motherhood, anxiety or illegal
termination of pregnancy.
5.
Some problems during adolescence are
decisive in building the personalities (positive and negative) - who may or may
not utilize the opportunities open to them during their later life.
6.
When teachers, parents, brothers
/sisters or any close person has positive dominant personality to effectively
guide the adolescent at right time - they turn out to be very useful section of
future population.
7.
Imaginary fear, imaginary anxieties and
unrealistic expectations as well as host of strong misconceptions may
ultimately end up with personalities of negative / perverted thoughts.
8.
In extreme disillusions, tension,
wrongful personality and maladjustments - a section of population may have to
be psychiatric patients. Psychosis of mild nature may remain untreated and
unnoticed. Such people will not do anything useful to the society or their
families.
9.
Adolescent being influenced by mass
media like electronic media, print media or computer culture - may be guided or
misguided by such exposure. When misguided - they are likely to develop
negative perception about many social values.
10.
The social implications of adolescent
problems are dependent upon social structure. In a country like India - where
family ties are strong due to emotional, financial, religious attachments - the
gravity of implications is less. But in an individualistic society like US /
Europe - where family ties are shallow - the gravity of implications can be far
more serious.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN AND
ADOLESCENTS: PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS
Children and
adolescents grow and develop at very different rates. Each individual is
unique, with a distinct personality and life experience. For this reason, age
is not the only sign of where a particular child or adolescent is in terms of
development. The different aspects of development are as follows.
1.
Physical
development – genetic make-up,
ethnicity, race, gender, nutrition and diet, exercise, sleep patterns, use of
tobacco, alcohol or other drugs, stress and stressful life events,
environmental toxins and socioeconomic status
2.
Cognitive
development – academic setting,
family environment, parent or caregiver involvement, access to early education
opportunities, teacher support, personal motivation, gender and cultural or
ethnic context
3.
Emotional
development – individual
temperament, parent and family relationships, support network, life experiences
and transitions; media exposure and influence and a tendency toward risk-taking
or delinquent behaviors
4.
Social
development – peer influence,
popularity, community and societal context
I.
Developmental
Characteristics of Infancy (Birth to 2 Years)
Physical Development
The development of
control and mastery over one's own body in both gross and fine motor skills is
the infant's primary physical task, culminating toward the end of the first
year in walking. The infant perfects the gross and fine motor skills that
emerged during the first year by developing balance, coordination, stability,
and an improved ability to manipulate objects.
Cognitive Development
Cognition begins with
alertness, awareness, recognition, and interest in visual, auditory, and
tactile (touch) stimuli. As motor development improves, the infant begins to
explore and manipulate objects and develops a rudimentary understanding of
their properties. Infants develop object permanence toward the
end of the first year. The emergence of symbolic thought is central to
cognitive development. This results in the ability to understand and produce
language.
Social Development
The most important
social task is the development of attachment to the primary caretaker, most
often the child's mother. The child develops affectionate and trusting
relationships with other family members and with adults outside the family. The
child can also be engaged in simple games and play.
Emotional Development
The development of basic
trust, a derivative of the positive attachment between the infant and the
primary caretaker, occurs during the first year. This is a cornerstone of
emotional development.
The primary
developmental task involves the development of autonomy, which includes mastery
and control over oneself and one's environment. Children develop a rudimentary
self-concept, experiencing pride and pleasure at being "good" and
embarrassment, shame, and distress at being "bad."
II. Developmental Characteristics of Early Childhood
(2-6 Years)
Physical Development
The child develops
increased strength and uses motor skills to master challenges in the
environment, such as bicycles, stairs, balls, playground equipment, eating
utensils, crayons, and other objects. The child is developmentally ready to
master toilet training.
Most basic gross motor
abilities have emerged. Existing skills are practiced and perfected, and the
child develops mastery in applying motor skills to increasingly challenging and
complex situations.
Cognitive Development
Perfection of language
skills and the use of language to communicate with others is the principle
cognitive task. Language develops rapidly. Grammar and syntax are refined, and
vocabulary increases geometrically. The child uses language as a communication
tool. Thinking is concrete and egocentric in nature. Problem solving is
illogical and magical thinking and fantasies are prevalent.
Social Development
The child develops
rudimentary relationships with other children, which are usually characterized
by "parallel play," that is playing in the presence of, rather than
in interaction with, other children. Children also begin to imitate social
roles at this time.
Toilet training
represents a significant internalization of social rules and expectations. The
child expands social relationships outside the family and develops interactive
and cooperative play skills with peers. The child begins to understand,
explore, imitate, and practice social roles. The child learns concepts of
"right" and "wrong" and begins to understand the nature of
rules. He experiences guilt when he has done something wrong.
Emotional Development
The preschool child has
been described as "on the make."Erikson refers to the child's primary
mode of operation during this stage as initiative. The child is intrusive,
takes charge, is very curious and continually tries new things, actively
manipulates the environment, and is self-directed in many activities. The
child's ability to understand "right" and "wrong" leads to
self-assessments and affects the development of self-esteem.
III.
Developmental
Characteristics of Late Childhood (Age 6-12 Years)
Physical Development
The child practices,
refines, and masters complex gross and fine motor and perceptual-motor skills.
Cognitive Development
Concrete operational
thinking replaces egocentric cognition. The child's thinking becomes more
logical and rational. The child develops the ability to understand others'
perspectives.
Social Development
Relationships outside
the family increase in importance, including the development of friendships and
participation in a peer group. The child imitates, learns, and adopts age
appropriate social roles, including those that are gender-specific. The child
develops an understanding of rules. Rules are relied upon to dictate proper
social behavior and to govern social relationships and activities.
Emotional Development
The child is
industrious, purposeful, and goal directed in her activities. She is confident
and self-directed. The child is developing a better sense of herself as an
individual, with likes and dislikes and special areas of skill. She is capable
of introspection. The child evaluates her worth by her ability to perform.
Self-esteem is largely derived from one's perceived abilities.
IV.
Developmental Characteristics
of Adolescence (Age 12-18 Years)
Physical Development
Physiological changes
at puberty promote rapid growth, the maturity of sexual organs, and development
of secondary sex characteristics.
Cognitive Development
During early
adolescence, precursors to formal operational thinking appear, including a
limited ability to think hypothetically and to take multiple perspectives.
During middle and late adolescence, formal operational thinking becomes well
developed and integrated in a significant percentage of adolescents.
Social Development
Social relationships in
early adolescence are centered in the peer group. Group values guide individual
behavior. Acceptance by peers is critical to self-esteem. Most peer
relationships are still same-sex.
Young adolescents
become interested in sexual relationships, but most contact is through groups.
Some youth may begin to experiment with sexual behavior, but many early
adolescents are not sexually active with other youth. Social roles are still
largely defined by external sources.
During middle and late
adolescence, values become individualized and internalized after careful
consideration and independent thought.
Friends are more often
selected on personal characteristics and mutual interests. The peer group declines
in importance, individual friendships are strengthened, and more youth
"date" in one-on-one relationships. The youth experiments with social
roles and explores options for career choice.
Emotional Development
The early adolescent is
strongly identified with the peer group. Youth depend upon their peers for
emotional stability and support and to help mold the youth's emerging identity.
Self-esteems greatly affected by acceptance of peers.
Early adolescents are
emotionally labile with exaggerated affect and frequent mood swings. They are
very vulnerable to emotional stress.
During middle and late
adolescence, identity is more individualized, and a sense of self develops and
stabilizes that is separate from either family or peer group. Self-esteem is influenced
by the youth's ability to live up to internalized standards for behavior.
Self-assessment and introspection are common.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
OF AN ORGANISM
There are several factors which directly or indirectly
influence the growth and development of an organism. There are as follows:
(i) Heredity, (ii) Environment, (iii) Sex, (iv) Nutrition,
(v) Races, (vi) Exercise, (vii) Hormones, (viii) Learning and Reinforcement.
1. Heredity:
Heredity is a biological process through which the
transmission of physical and social characteristics takes place from parents to
off-springs. It greatly influences the different aspects of growth and
development i.e. height, weight and structure of the body, color of hair and
eye, intelligence, aptitudes and instincts.
However environment equally influences the above
aspects in many cases. Biologically speaking heredity is the sum total of
traits potentially present in the fertilized ovum (Combination of sperm cell
& egg cell), by which off-springs are resemblance to their parents and for
parents.
2. Environment
Environment plays an important role in human life.
Psychologically a person's environment consists of the sum total of the
stimulations (physical & Psychological) which he receives from his
conception. There are different types of environment such as physical,
environment, social environment & psychological environment.
Physical environment consists of all outer physical
surroundings both in-animate and animate which have to be manipulated in order
to provide food, clothing and shelter. Geographical conditions i.e. weather and
climates are physical environment which has considerable impact on individual
child.
Social environment is constituted by the
society-individuals and institutions, social laws, customs by which human
behavior is regulated.
Psychological environment is rooted in individual's
reaction with an object. One's love, affection and fellow feeling attitude will
strengthen human bond with one another. So Growth and Development are regulated
by the environment of an individual where he lives.
3. Sex
Sex acts as an important factor of growth and
development. There is difference in growth and development of boys and girls.
The boys in general taller, courageous than the girls but Girls show rapid
physical growth in adolescence and excel boys. In general the body constitution
and structural growth of girls are different from boys. The functions of boys
and girls are also different in nature.
4. Nutrition
Growth and Development of the child mainly depend on
his food habits & nutrition. The malnutrition has adverse effect on the
structural and functional development of the child.
5. Races
The racial factor has a great influence on height,
weight, color, features and body constitution. A child of white race will be
white & tall even hair and eye color, facial structure are governed by the
same race.
6. Exercise
This does not mean the physical exercise as a
discipline. The functional activities of the child come in the fold of exercise
of the body. We do not mean any law of growth through use or atrophy (The
reverse of growth) through disuse.
The growth of muscles from the normal functioning of
the child is a matter of common knowledge. It is a fact that repeated play and
rest build the strength of the muscle. The increase in muscular strength is
mainly due to better circulation and oxygen supply. The brain muscles develop
by its own activity-play and other activities provide for these growth and
development of various muscles. Deliberately the child does not play or engages
himself in various other functions with the knowledge that they will help him
in growing. This style of functioning of the child is but natural.
7. Hormones
There are a number of endocrine glands inside the human
body. Endocrine glands are ductless glands. This means there are certain glands
situated in some specific parts of the body. These glands make internal
secretions locally. These secretions produce one or more hormones.
Hormones are physiological substances having the power
to raise or lower the activity level of the body or certain organs of the body.
For example, the gland pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, not into the blood,
but into the intestine. Here it acts upon food and plays an important part in
digestion of food. This pancreas also discharges into the blood, a substance
called insulin. This being carried by the blood to the muscles enables them to
use sugar as a fuel to add strength to muscles. It the pancreas fails to
produce the secretions, the organism lapses to the unfavorable conditions of
growth and development.
Similarly, the adrenal glands are very close to
kidneys. These make a secretion of adrenaline, a very powerful hormone, which
is responsible for strong and rapid heart-beat, release of stored sugar from
liver and which controls blood pressure. Gonads are glands, which secrete
hormones that have important effects on growth and sex behavior.
A balance of male hormones controls development in the
direction of masculinity and that of female hormones steers it toward feminist.
At puberty, these sex hormones promote the development of genital organs.
Lacking the gonads, individuals of either sex develops into rather a neutral
specimen without strong sex characteristics. Pituitary is called the
"master gland". It is attached to the underside of the brain and its
secretions control the brain function and also the blood pressure. It
stimulates other glands like adrenal and gonads. If this gland is over-active
in childhood, the muscles and bones grow very rapidly and the individual may
become a giant of seven to nine feet tall.
8. Learning and Reinforcement
Learning is the most important and fundamental topic
in the whole science of psychology. Development consists of maturation and
learning. Without any learning the human organism is a structure of various
limbs, all other internal organs with muscles and bones. But it is not human
being with maturation.
Learning includes much more than school learning.
Learning goes to help the human child in his physical, mental, emotional,
intellectual, social and attitudinal developments. All knowledge and skill, all
habits, good and bad, all acquaintances with people and things, all attitudes
built up in your dealing with people and things have been learned.
Reinforcement is a factor in learning. Exercise or
activity is necessary for learning. It may be a motor activity, as in playing
on a musical instrument. Or it may be a sensory activity as in listening to a
piece of music. Whatsoever, there must be activity in some from. "We learn
by doing". It is an old psychological proverb. Now it is that out activity
should be repeated till we get the desired results. So the proverb should be,
"We learn by doing getting results."
ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN FACILITATING GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
What we know about the
child is vast and impressive. However, what we do not know is even more vast
and overwhelming. Every new insight opens up new questions. Therefore, as a
teacher we need to update our knowledge about the problems of children, in the
context of the media explosion, economic strivings, resultant social, cultural
and value changes. With this, we will be able to make a reliable diagnosis and
apply the knowledge of child psychology to better their adjustment with themselves
and with the world around them.
We, as a teacher, should know what to
expect from the child (student), and what he needs physically, socially and
emotionally. The routine teacher-taught relationship would not benefit him
unless the students are dealt with empathetically as a social being, as an
individual self, and as a
biological organism.
A teacher should accept
and make our students accept the reality of physical and biological changes so
that the transition takes a smooth course without causing any psychological
disadvantage. We need to create such challenging conditions, which may lead to
the effective coordination of physical, mental and other functions in order to
ensure adequate adjustment to probable life situations.
Yet another task that
teacher should ensure is to secure effective and desirable responses, and
prevent or eliminate ineffective or undesirable ones. One way is to arrange
conditions in a way that make desirable responses satisfying and not annoying.
Positive training in self-direction and self-control should be given to
students. Some of the following points should be kept in mind while guiding
them:
1.
Control and
guidance must come from the student himself under the teacher's supervision.
2.
Harsh, strict
and unsympathetic control and prescription of every detail of conduct leaving
no place, for self-control and self-direction are not conducive to student’s
mental health and adjustment to life's events.
3.
Proper guidance,
rational shifts of treatment, and principles of autonomy should be judiciously
applied to ensure smooth passage through the turbulent period of student.
It is around the
adolescence stage that students reach the higher levels of their school
education. A teacher need to receive adequate knowledge and skills with due preparedness
in order to handle their emotional and social needs. As a teacher, we need to
appreciate the fact that students at this stage are prone to revolt against
established norms, rules, and authority. You should keep yourself ready to
provide explanations and rationale for the beliefs and values, which your
students would question. Students at this time need proper guidance to decide
on the right course of action.
They need supportive
judgments to do things, which provide them self-confidence and self- assurance.
The range of individual differences in mental ability among adolescents is
wide. You need to use some plan of classification to secure homogeneous groups
in respect of significant abilities and achievements so that curricular and
instructional needs can be suitably met. Studies have indicated that in certain
tasks a student's performance would improve when others (teachers) are around.
This phenomenon is
called social facilitation.
However, this is not a universal phenomenon. Still other studies have shown
that when a student is first trying. To learn something new, the presence of
others is detrimental. In such a situation, the teacher has to assess the
situation (considering the class as a social unit) and the personality traits
of his students and accordingly he should facilitate their growth and
development.
COGNITIVE
THEORY:
Theorist Jean Piaget suggested that children think differently than
adults and proposed a stage theory of cognitive development. He was the first
to note that children play an active role in gaining knowledge of the world.
PIAGET'S THEORY
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:
Jean
Piaget believed that children go through a number of fixed stages on their way
to independent thinking. His theory on cognitive development, though, is
perhaps the most widely accepted and most cited.
Piaget
believed that all children will go through the following stages in order, the
age ranges are only a general guideline.
Each child matures in his own time, and even siblings don't do the same
things at exactly the same age.
Piaget's
Theory of Cognitive Development
I.
Sensory
Motor Stage: (Birth to 2 Years)
An
enormous amount of growth and development takes place in the first two years of
life. During that time span, children go from being completely helpless to
walking, talking, and to a degree, being able to make sense of the world around
them.
One
of the most important milestones that children achieve in their first few
years, according to Piaget, is their mastery of "object permanency,"
or the ability to understand that even when a person or object is removed from
their line of sight, it still exists.
Early
on, children are only able to perceive things that are right in front of them,
but as they mature, they understand that if a ball rolls under a chair and they
can no longer see it, it still exists, under the chair.
This
is an especially important understanding for children, helping them to have an
increased sense of safety and security since they can now grasp the fact that
when mum leaves the room; she hasn't disappeared, but will soon return.
II.
Pre-operational
Stage: (2-7 Years)
Once
object permanency is achieved, children move onto this next stage, which is
marked by a number of advancements.
Language skills develop rapidly, allowing kids
to better express themselves.
Also, children
in the preoperational stage are egocentric, meaning that they believe that
everyone sees the world the way that they do, leaving no room for the
perspectives of others.
For
example, a child will sometimes cover their eyes so that they cannot see
someone and make the assumption that the other person now cannot see them,
either. A major indicator of this stage is called conservation, or the ability
to understand that quantity does not change just because shape changes.
For example, if you were to pour the same
quantity of liquid into two separate glasses, one short and wide and the other
tall and thin, younger children would insist that the taller glass holds more.
Children who have mastered the concept of conservation would be able to
understand that the quantities are identical.
Piaget
explained that the child's inability to yet grasp the concept is due to their
capacity to focus on only one aspect of a problem at a time (centration), their
tendency to take things at face value (appearance), and the fact that they see
something only in its current condition (state).
They cannot yet
understand that the wider with of the short glass compensates for the height of
the taller one.
III.
Concrete
Operations Stage: (7 to 11 Years)
During
the concrete operations stage, the centristic thought process is gradually
replaced by the ability to consider a number of factors simultaneously, giving
them the ability to solve increasingly complex problems.
Also,
kids at this stage can now understand how to group like objects, even if they
are not identical.
For
example, they are able to see that apples, oranges, cherries, and bananas are
all types of fruit; even they are not exactly the same.
Another
important developmental advancement that occurs during this phase is seriation,
the ability to place things in order according to size.
Children
who have a mastery of this concept are able to take jars of varying heights and
place them in order, tallest to shortest.
They
still have some distinct limitations to their thinking process, however, especially
when it comes to applying concepts that they are unfamiliar with.
While
their understanding of the things that they have direct access to is strong,
kids this age still have a tendency to lack understanding of things that they
haven't personally seen, touched, heard, tasted, or smelled.
IV.
Formal
Operations Stage: (11 and Beyond)
In
the final phase of cognitive development, children hold a much broader
understanding of the world around them and are able to think in abstract ways.
They
are also able to hypothesizes possible outcomes to a given problem and then
think of ways in which to test their theories. Children in the formal
operations stage learn to use deductive reasoning to draw conclusions, which
opens them up to a wider base of knowledge than ever before.
An
example might be as follows:
A bear is a mammal.
All
mammals have fur.
Therefore,
a bear has fur.
PSYCHO-SEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT
The theory of
psychosexual development was proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and described how personality developed over the course of childhood.
While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most
controversial.
So how exactly
does this psychosexual theory work? Freud believed that personality developed
through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of
the id become focused on certain erogenous areas.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that
personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a
large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later
in life.
So what happens
during each stage? What if a person fails to progress through a stage
completely or favorably? If these psychosexual stages are completed
successfully, a healthy personality is the result. If certain issues are not
resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual
stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain
"stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the
oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through
smoking, drinking, or eating.
The Oral Stage
During the oral stage, activities such
as chewing and eating are important.
Age Range:
Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone:
Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so
the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for
eating and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely
dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the
infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral
stimulation.
The primary
conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the
individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can
result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.
The Anal Stage
Freud believed that potty training
played an important role during the anal stage of development.
Age Range: 1 to
3 years
Erogenous Zone:
Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this
stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily
needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and
independence.
According to
Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training.
Parents who
utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time
encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud
believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for
people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not
all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during
this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for
accidents.
According to
Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If
parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or
destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too
early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in
which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
The Phallic
Stage
Age Range: 3 to
6 Years
Erogenous Zone:
Genitals
During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children
also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
Freud also
believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus
complex describes these feelings of wanting to
possess the mother and the desire to replace the father.
However, the
child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a
fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young
girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the
child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy
was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this
stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women.
Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because
they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.
The Latent
Period
Age Range: 6 to
Puberty
Erogenous Zone:
Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During the
latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that
children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships,
hobbies, and other interests.
The latent
period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present,
but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social
interactions.
This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
The Genital
Stage
Age Range:
Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone:
Maturing Sexual Interests
During the final
stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last
throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in
earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage. If the other stages have been
completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and
caring.
The goal of
this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.
Evaluating
Freud's Psychosexual Stage Theory
Freud's theory
is still considered controversial today, but imagine how audacious it seemed
during the late 1800s and early 1900s. There have been a number of observations
and criticisms of Freud's psychosexual theory on a number of grounds, including
scientific and feminist critiques:
- The theory is focused almost entirely on male
development with little mention of female psychosexual development.
- His theories are difficult to test scientifically.
Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore
cannot be tested. The research that has been conducted tends to discredit
Freud's theory.
- Future predictions are too vague. How can we know
that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience?
The length of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume
that there is a relationship between the two variables.
- Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not
empirical research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of
his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children.
The summary
below offers a brief overview of these stages of psychosexual
development, the approximate age levels for each
stage and the primary conflict confronted at each stage.
An infant's
primary interaction with the world is through the mouth. The mouth is vital for
eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through
gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
If this need is not met, the child may
develop an oral fixation later in life, examples of which include
thumb-sucking, smoking, fingernail biting and overeating.
Freud believed
that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel
movements. Toilet training is a primary issue with children and parents. Too
much pressure can result in an excessive need for order or cleanliness later in
life, while too little pressure from parents can lead to messy or destructive
behavior later in life.
Freud suggested
that the primary focus of the id's energy is on the genitals. According to
Freud, boy's experience an Oedipal Complex and girl's experience and Electra
Complex, or an attraction to the opposite sex parent. To cope with this
conflict, children adopt the values and characteristics of the same-sex parent,
thus forming the superego.
During this
stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers
and adults outside of the family.
The onset of
puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During this stage,
people develop a strong interest in the opposite. If development has been
successful to this point, the individual will continue to develop into a
well-balanced person.
PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (ERIK ERIKSON)
Erik Erikson (1950, 1963) does not talk about psychosexual
Stages, he discusses psychosocial stages. His
ideas were greatly influenced by Freud, going along with Freud’s (1923) theory
regarding the structure and topography of personality.
However,
whereas Freud was an id psychologist, Erikson was an ego psychologist. He
emphasized the role of culture and society and the conflicts that can take
place within the ego itself, whereas Freud emphasized the conflict between
the id and the
superego.
According to
Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are
distinctly social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in
others, developing a sense of identity in society, and helping the next
generation prepare for the future.
Erikson extends
on Freudian thoughts by focusing on the adaptive and creative characteristic of
the ego, and expanding the notion of the stages of personality
development to include the entire lifespan.
Erikson
proposed a lifespan model of development, taking in five stages up to the age
of 18 years and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson
suggests that there is still plenty of room for continued growth and
development throughout one’s life. Erikson puts a great deal of emphasis on the
adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for developing a person’s
identity.
Like Freud and many others, Erik
Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and
builds upon each previous stage. This is called the epidemic principle.
The outcome of this 'maturation timetable'
is a wide and integrated set of life skills and abilities that function
together within the autonomous individual. However, instead of focusing on
sexual development (like Freud), he was interested in how children socialize
and how this affects their sense of self.
Erikson’s
(1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages. Like
Freud, Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. For
Erikson (1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve
psychological needs of the individual (i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs
of society (i.e. social).
According to
the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy
personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are
characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to
successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete
further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of
self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later
time.
Is the world a
safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen?
Erikson's first
psychosocial crisis occurs during the first year or so of life (like Freud's
oral stage of psychosexual development). The crisis is one of trust vs.
mistrust.
During this
stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve
these feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver
for stability and consistency of care.
If the infant
receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, to the caretaker they will
develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and
they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of
trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility
that other people will be there are a source of support. Failing to acquire the
virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.
For example, if
the caretaker has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable,
then the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence
in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.
This infant
will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may
result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in
the world around them.
The child is
developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months
and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from
their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what
they like to wear, to eat, etc.
The child is
discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on
clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's
growing sense of independence and autonomy. Erikson states it is critical that
parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an
encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
For example,
rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the
patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.
So, the parents need to encourage the child to becoming more independent whilst
at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate
balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the
child but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the
child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim
has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992). Success
in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
If children in
this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they
become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
If children are
criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert
themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may
then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities.
Around age
three and continuing to age five, children assert themselves more frequently.
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life.
According to Bee (1992) it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that
the parents may see as aggressive".
During this
period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other
children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with
the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating
activities.
Children begin
to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If
given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure
in their ability to lead others and make decisions.
Conversely, if
this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children
develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will
therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.
The child takes
initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the
child. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the
danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his
initiatives too much.
It is at this
stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for
knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a
nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then
the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
Too much guilt
can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their
creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary, otherwise the child would not
know how to exercise self control or have a conscience.
A healthy
balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will
lead to the virtue of purpose.
Children are at
the stage (aged 5 to 12 yrs) where they will be learning to read and write, to
do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in
the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this
stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will
become a major source of the child’s self esteem. The child now feels the need
to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by
society, and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
If children are
encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious
and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not
encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to
feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or
her potential.
If the child
cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being
athletic) then they may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be
necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance
between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of competence.
During
adolescence (age 12 to 18 yrs), the transition from childhood to adulthood is
most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at
the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The
individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.
This is a major stage in development
where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the
adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or
she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the
occupational.
According to
Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated
sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex
role”. During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes.
Erikson claims
that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until
they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of fidelity.
Fidelity
involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting
others, even when there may be ideological differences.
During this period, they explore
possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of
their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society
("I don’t know -what I want to be -when I grow up") can lead to role
confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about
themselves or their place in society.
In response to
role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to
experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political
activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion
in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this
feeling of unhappiness.
Occurring in
young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves more
intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term
commitments with someone other than a family member.
Successful
completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of
commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing
commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes
depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
During middle
adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle down within a
relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the
bigger picture.
We give back to society through raising
our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community
activities and organizations.
By failing to
achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
As we grow older
(65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity,
and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see
ourselves as leading a successful life.
Erik Erikson
believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or
feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with
life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to
look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also
accept death without fear.
Erikson is
rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must
people have in order to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and
move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism
for crisis resolution.
Indeed, Erikson
(1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social
and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this
development occurs. For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the
outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.
One of the
strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important
psychosocial development across the entire lifespan.
Although support for Erikson's stages of personality development exists (McAdams,
1999), critics of his theory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages
of personality development (McCrae & Costa, 1997).
QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE
1.
Differentiate
Growth and Development.
2.
Write short note
on Cognitive development.
3.
List out the
dimensions of development.
4.
Narrate the
characteristics of development.
5.
Illustrate
stages of child development.
6.
Explain
Freud’s Psycho-Sexual development.
7.
Brief account
on Erickson’s Psycho-Social development.
8.
Enumerate the
stages of Piaget’s Cognitive development.
9.
Explain the
factors affecting growth and development.
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